Abstract
Carlo Rovelli argues that reality is not made up of isolated, self-contained things, but of relationships and events. Drawing on physics and philosophy, he questions the idea that fundamental laws or a single “ultimate” theory can explain everything. Time, cause and effect, and even what counts as real depend on perspective and context. Since every way of understanding the world is partial and knowledge is always incomplete.
Context
Kant
Rovelli describes Kant as trying to make sense of Newtonian physics, especially its assumptions about space, and says physicists need philosophy to question the conceptual frameworks they work within.
That concern is visible in Rovelli’s own work: in relational quantum mechanics, physical properties are not treated as absolute facts independent of everything else, they are described relative to interactions between systems. This echoes the broad Kantian idea that what we can know is shaped by the conditions and frameworks through which we experience or describe the world.
But Rovelli’s view is grounded in modern physics and differs from Kant’s account of the mind’s role in structuring experience. Kant helps frame the question "What assumptions make our picture of nature possible?”. Rovelli uses that kind of philosophical questioning while letting physics and its experiments and theories, revise the answers.
Ernst Mach
Rovelli's work is deeply indebted to Albert Einstein, primarily through the pursuit of a unified theory of physics and a specific philosophical approach to the nature of time and space.
Rovelli views Einstein as the ultimate catalyst for modern theoretical physics because Einstein dismantled the Newtonian concept of absolute space and time. By showing that time is relative to the observer and inextricably linked to space (spacetime), Einstein set the stage for Rovelli's own research in Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG). Rovelli continues Einstein's project of "geometrising" physics, treating the gravitational field not as a force acting within a stage, but as the stage itself.
Einstein's influence is visible in three areas:
- The quest for a quantum theory of gravity is a direct extension of Einstein's unfinished goal of a Unified Field Theory. Rovelli attempts to reconcile Einstein's General Relativity (the physics of the very large) with quantum mechanics (the physics of the very small). While Einstein famously struggled with the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, Rovelli accepts it but applies Einstein's principle of background independence (the idea that the laws of physics should not depend on a pre-existing fixed space) to the quantum realm.
Rovelli's conceptualisation of time is a radicalisation of Einstein's relativity. Einstein proved that there is no single "now" for the entire universe. Rovelli pushes this further in his philosophy, suggesting that time may not be a fundamental property of the universe at all, but rather an emergent phenomenon resulting from our macroscopic perspective of a timeless quantum world.
Rovelli often cites Einstein as a model for the scientific rebel. He admires Einstein's ability to question the most basic, intuitive assumptions of his era, such as the constancy of time, and replace them with a more elegant, mathematical reality. This spirit of conceptual auditing defines Rovelli's approach to dismantling the notion of "things" in favor of "events" and "relations."
The evolution of Rovelli's thinking through his writings
Carlo Rovelli's thinking has evolved from a primary focus on the technical foundations of quantum gravity toward a broader, relational philosophy that bridges theoretical physics, history, and Eastern philosophy. In his early professional work and technical textbooks, such as Quantum Gravity (2004), his focus was on the mathematical struggle to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics. As a founder of loop quantum gravity, his early thinking centered on the quantisation of space-time, the idea that space is not a continuous background but is composed of discrete grains.
Starting around 2014, Rovelli shifted toward a more poetic and accessible style, using popular science to explore the philosophical implications of his research. In Seven Brief Lessons on Physics (2014) and Reality Is Not What It Seems (2014), he began translating the abstract concepts of loop quantum gravity into a narrative about the journey of human knowledge. This trend culminated in The Order of Time (2017), where his thinking evolved to explicitly challenge the human perception of time, arguing that the linear flow from past to future is an emergent perspective rather than a fundamental feature of the universe.
In his most recent works, Rovelli has moved beyond the technical mechanics of physics to a relational interpretation of reality. In Helgoland (2020), he proposes that objects do not have intrinsic properties on their own but exist only in relation to other objects, suggesting that the universe is a net of interactions rather than a collection of substances. This phase is marked by a synthesis of physics with other disciplines, drawing parallels between his relational physics and the Buddhist concept of emptiness, the absence of independent existence.
His current thinking reaches a synthesis in On the Equality of All Things (2026), where he explores the intersection of modern physics and diverse philosophical traditions, including the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi. In this work, he moves toward a vision of reality that is not made of "things" but of relationships, arguing that there are no hierarchies or foundations in nature, only a set of reflections where all things are fundamentally equal. This evolution completes a trajectory from the rigid mathematical structures of quantum gravity to a holistic, interdisciplinary meditation on existence and the inherent uncertainty of knowledge.
Buy: On the Equality of All Things
Commentary
Sull’eguaglianza di tutte le cose. Lezioni americane (About the Equality of All Things: American Lectures), was a sequence of seven lectures delivered by Carlo Rovelli at Princeton University in late 2024. It was published as a book in English in 2026.
Preface
The preface introduces a book that explores the philosophical implications of modern science, particularly the intersection of gravity and quantum mechanics. The author proposes a relational view of reality, arguing that the world is not composed of independent objects or governed by simple cause-and-effect, but is instead a web of intertwining perspectives and relations.
Drawing inspiration from the Zhuangzi (one of the foundational texts of Taoism), the author advocates for an anti-foundationalist approach, suggesting that diverse entities — from electrons to galaxies — do not differ essentially in nature. The text is intended for both a general audience curious about science's impact on philosophy and specialists interested in the conceptual challenges of contemporary physics.
1. The Relational Structure of Reality
The first lesson transforms the idea of the "world" from a collection of bricks (atoms/objects) into a web of events and interactions, where the only constant is the connection between parts. Rovelli presents the philosophical and scientific core of the book: the idea that things are not "objects" with fixed properties, but rather relationships
In moving beyond substance Rovelli challenges the classical view (stemming from Aristotle or Newton) that the world is made of "substances" or "objects" that possess intrinsic properties (such as mass, charge, or color) regardless of anything else. For Rovelli, this view has been superseded by modern physics.
The central concept is that a thing exists only in relation to something else. Drawing from quantum mechanics, Rovelli explains that the properties of an object do not belong to the object itself, but emerge only during the interaction between two systems. The position or velocity of a particle are not "given facts" that the particle possesses in isolation; instead, they are the result of an interaction between that particle and a measuring instrument (or another system).
Links to Eastern Thought. In this lesson, Rovelli connects relational physics to the thought of Nagarjuna and the Buddhist concept of Sunyata (emptiness). The idea is that things are "empty" of a self-nature. They have no independent essence but are defined entirely by their relationships with their surroundings.
Epistemological Consequences. If reality is relational, then:
- There is no neutral observation: the observer is an integral part of the relation that creates the observed property.
- The equality of descriptions: since everything depends on the relation and the perspective, there is no "fundamental" description superior to others. Physical, biological, or sociological descriptions are simply different relations between the observer and the object, and are therefore all equally valid.
2. From Inside the Circle
Rovelli explores the dissolution of the boundary between the observer and the observed, drawing a parallel between modern physics and ancient Eastern philosophy, specifically the teachings of Zhuangzi. He uses the famous paradox of the butterfly dream — where Zhuangzi wakes and wonders if he is a man who dreamed he was a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming he is a man — to argue that the perceived separation between ourselves and the rest of nature is an illusion.
Rovelli puts forward a concept of ontological equality, suggesting that there is no fundamental difference in nature between mind and matter, or between human beings and the inanimate world. From his perspective, everything in existence is made of the same "stuff": relations. Nothing possesses intrinsic properties that exist independently. Instead, objects and entities only acquire characteristics through their interactions with other systems. In this view, we are not external spectators watching the universe unfold, but are ourselves small fragments of nature interacting with other fragments.
This philosophical stance is grounded in Rovelli's interpretation of relational quantum mechanics. He argues that science confirms this ancient intuition: the state of any physical system is only defined relative to another system. By removing the idea of an absolute, objective "view from nowhere," he suggests that reality is a web of perspectives. This removes the hierarchy typically placed on human consciousness, placing us on an equal footing with the rest of the cosmos.
Ultimately, Rovelli encourages a shift from the anxiety of searching for a single, absolute truth toward a state of intellectual "lightness." He suggests that accepting the partial and relational nature of knowledge allows us to experience the world with greater humility and wonder. By embracing the uncertainty of our position within the "circle" of existence, we can move past the need for rigid definitions and appreciate the fluid, interconnected nature of all things.
3. Space-time is a quantum process
In the third lesson Rovelli argues that spacetime is not a static container or a pre-existing stage where events unfold, but is instead an emergent property of a deeper, relational quantum process.
Rovelli suggests that the universe is not made of "things" or objects with intrinsic, absolute properties, but of relations. From this perspective, an entity exists and acquires its characteristics only through its interaction with other entities. Spacetime itself is described as a network of discrete, probabilistic events that are fundamentally impermanent, suggesting that the continuity we perceive in time and space is an approximation of a more granular, quantum reality.
A central theme of this lesson is the rejection of a "bottom" or an ultimate foundation to existence. Rather than seeking a single, final building block of the universe, Rovelli describes reality as an intricate web of occurrences — like a Venetian lace — where knowledge is simply one event among many within this vast relational fabric.
Ultimately, by framing spacetime as a quantum process, Rovelli aims to dissolve the rigid distinctions between different types of matter and consciousness. He suggests that electrons, minds and galaxies are not essentially different substances but are instead various manifestations of the same relational nature, contributing to a broader philosophical vision of the "equality of all things".
4. Living in the Course of Time
Rovelli challenges the notion that time is a universal and uniform flow that is the same for everyone. In contemporary physics. Time depends on relations and events: there is no single "now" that is valid everywhere, and time can pass at different speeds for different observers. The idea of a shared present is primarily a convenient approximation of our daily experience.
Rovelli connects this vision to the relational structure of reality: time is not an external container in which things happen, but rather emerges from the changes and interactions between systems. Even what we call the past, present, and future gain meaning based on the perspective and relationships of the observer. Consequently, the lesson invites us to abandon the idea of absolute time and instead conceive of reality as a network of processes, within which our own experience of time is situated and partial.
5. What exists?
Rovelli argues that things do not exist as absolute, independent entities with intrinsic properties. He challenges the common intuition that there is a "true" underlying nature to an object that exists regardless of who or what is observing it. Instead, he suggests that existence is fundamentally relational, a thing only manifests its properties when it interacts with something else.
Rovelli suggests that reality is not a collection of isolated objects but a vast network of relations. From this perspective, the "equality" mentioned in the title refers to ontological equality. He claims there is no metaphysical hierarchy among the different ways we describe the world. Whether we describe a phenomenon through the lens of quantum physics, biology, sociology, or personal emotion, none of these descriptions is "more real" or more fundamental than the others.
To illustrate this, he uses the example of a simple object, such as a bottle of water. The bottle can be described as a thermodynamic system, a collection of atoms, a tool for quenching thirst, or a product of a global economic chain. Rovelli argues that the bottle is not any one of these things, nor is it something hidden behind them, rather, the bottle is the sum of all these relational descriptions.
Rovelli concludes that there is no single, objective "truth" of an object, but only a plurality of perspectives. By removing the idea of a fundamental substrate of reality, he levels the playing field, granting equal validity to the scientific, the human, and the experiential dimensions of existence.
6. Without certainty or foundations
The author continues to explore the idea that the universe is not built upon a solid base or a set of immutable, absolute laws, but is instead a web of relations.
Rovelli argues that the search for an ultimate "foundation" — a fundamental particle, a definitive formula, or an absolute truth that supports everything else — is a perspectival error. Modern physics, particularly quantum mechanics and relativity, suggests that objects do not possess intrinsic properties. Things do not "be" something in isolation, but rather become something only through interaction with other things.
The equality of all things stems from this relational nature. If nothing possesses a fixed and independent essence, there is no ontological hierarchy among the different elements of the cosmos. Everything is interconnected in a network of events and interactions, making every part of the universe, in principle, mirror-like to any other in its way of existing as a relation.
Rovelli encourages the acceptance of a lack of dogmatic certainty, proposing a vision of the world where reality is not a static object to be discovered, but a dynamic process of relations in which the observer and the observed are part of the same game.
Appendix. How science works?
In the appendix titled Carlo Rovelli explores the nature of the scientific method, challenging the notion that science is a collection of absolute certainties or a perfect mirror of reality.
He argues that science does not represent a complete break from common sense but rather maintains a continuity with it, even as it evolves to transcend its limitations. Rovelli states that scientific concepts are not static truths but are subject to constant historical refinement. In his view, theories should be understood not as "models", which implies a simplified copy of reality, but as modal tools. Science, therefore, does not describe what reality "is" in an absolute sense, but provides the tools necessary to interact with the world and make accurate predictions.
Furthermore, Rovelli highlights the essential role of metaphors in scientific discovery, noting that they often act as conceptual bridges that lead toward formal mathematical descriptions. He cautions against relying on "obviousness," pointing out that the most revolutionary breakthroughs typically occur when scientists question what seems most natural or self-evident.
Rovelli acknowledges that science is fallible and capable of going astray. However, he asserts that it is precisely this vulnerability, paired with the systematic ability to correct its own errors, that makes the scientific method so powerful. This appendix reinforces the book's broader theme of relationality, suggesting that science itself is a relational process, open-ended and devoid of immutable foundations.
Themes
Carlo Rovelli argues that reality is not made of things or objects, but of relations and events. In his view, the world does not consist of a collection of static entities with inherent properties, but rather of a network of interactions.
He hypothesises that the properties of any physical system, such as position, velocity, or spin, do not exist in absolute terms. They only manifest when that system interacts with another. For example, an object does not "have" a specific location in a void, but rather its location is defined by its relationship to other objects. This perspective, heavily influenced by relational quantum mechanics, suggests that the state of any system is always relative to the observer or the system it is interacting with.
Rovelli further extends this to the nature of time and space. He argues that time is not a fundamental, universal background flowing at a constant rate, but an emergent property. In the fundamental equations of the universe (specifically in loop quantum gravity), the variable we call time disappears. What we perceive as the "flow" of time is actually a macroscopic effect resulting from our ignorance of the microscopic details of the universe, in particular the way thermodynamics and entropy create a direction (the arrow of time) in a world that is fundamentally timeless.
Rovelli describes reality as a "quantum foam" of relational events. Space and time are not the stage upon which the play of the universe occurs, they are the result of the interactions between the quantum grains of space itself. Reality is therefore a web of events, where the only fundamental truth is the interaction.
The limits of human knowledge
In his work, On the Equality of All Things (2026), Rovelli explores the idea that human knowledge is inherently limited because it is relational. He argues that we cannot access a "view from nowhere" or an objective reality existing outside of our interactions. Instead, we only ever know the world through the perspective of our relationships with other things.
For Rovelli, these limits are not a deficiency of the human mind but a fundamental property of the universe. He suggests that reality itself is a web of interactions rather than a collection of static, independent objects. By accepting that our knowledge is always partial and perspectival, he argues that we can move away from a frustrating search for absolute certainty and instead find a sense of serenity in the openness of the unknown.
This philosophy is deeply intertwined with his view of science, which he sees as a process of constant imagining and updating rather than a destination of fixed truths. Drawing on the influence of Ludwig Wittgenstein and Eastern philosophies, he emphasises that our linguistic and conceptual frameworks have boundaries. He posits that the true power of science lies in its ability to acknowledge these limits and continue exploring the gaps in our understanding.
Time and space
Carlo Rovelli, a theoretical physicist and founder of loop quantum gravity, argues that space and time are not the fundamental "background" of the universe, but are emergent properties. In his view, the universe is not a container in which events happen, but is instead composed of a network of relations and events.
Rovelli proposes that at the Planck scale, space is not continuous. Instead, it is "granular," consisting of discrete quanta of space. This leads to the conclusion that space is a relational structure — a web of interactions — rather than a smooth fabric. If you zoom in far enough, the concept of "here" or "there" disappears, replaced by a quantum foam of intersecting loops.
His most radical claim concerns time. Rovelli suggests that time does not exist as a universal, flowing entity. While we perceive a linear flow from past to future, he argues that at the most fundamental level of physics, there is no "time" variable. Instead, the world is described by the way physical variables change in relation to one another. Time, as we experience it, is a macroscopic approximation, a result of our limited perspective and the thermodynamic increase of entropy.
Essentially, Rovelli views the universe as a set of events rather than a set of objects. In this framework, the transition from the fundamental quantum world to our perceived reality is a process of blurring, where the discrete, timeless interactions of quantum gravity smooth out into the space and time we experience in daily life.
The human condition
Carlo Rovelli explores the human condition primarily through the lens of relational quantum mechanics and thermodynamics, arguing that humans are not isolated observers of the universe but are an intrinsic, interwoven part of it. In his work, the human condition is defined by the tension between our perceived permanence and the fundamental reality of flux and relationality.
He posits that nothing has properties in isolation; instead, everything, from an electron to a human being, exists only in relation to other things. From this perspective, the human condition is one of constant interaction and interdependence. We do not "have" a fixed essence, but are instead a collection of relations and events.
Rovelli also connects the human condition to the concept of entropy and the "arrow of time." He suggests that our experience of time and our awareness of our own mortality are products of our macroscopic perspective. While the fundamental laws of physics are largely time-symmetric, the human experience is defined by the flow of time toward disorder. He views this fragility and finiteness not as a tragedy, but as the very thing that gives human life its intensity and meaning.
By blending physics with philosophy and poetry, Rovelli suggests that understanding our place in a relational, shifting universe allows us to move past the illusion of a separate, controlling "ego" and embrace a more integrated, humble existence within the cosmos.
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