The portrait of the hero has a clear tradition in European literature and particularly in the Renaissance courts of Italy and Spain. These courts evolved under the social, economic and cultural changes brought about by Renaissance thinking, especially Humanism. These ideas were recorded in the works of Castiglione in Il Cortegiano (1502, 1528), Machavelli in II Principe (1532), and Gracián in El Héroe (1637), El discreto (1646) and Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia (1647).
Castiglione lived and composed during the Italian golden period of the quattrocento which influenced English Renaissance authors like Shakespeare. The Elizabethans found a courtly ideal in Castiglione, but in the later writings of Gracián, during the Spanish Siglo de Oro, the shine was coming off and the world of the court was revealed as corrupt. At the beginning of the 17th. century it is not coincidental that Cervantes had already made fun of chivalrous ideals in Don Quixote (1605, 1615).
However, Gracián makes an effort to link his present degraded court experience with the past ideals in an attempt to point to a higher morality than the debased court atmosphere. El héroe is this higher ideal of rectitude and exemplary behaviour.
The background to Gracian's writings was the Spanish Court in the first half of the 17th. century, which was headed by King Philip IV (1605-1665), also king of Portugal. The ruler patronised the arts, especially Velázquez, and was himself a poet. He reigned over the gradual demise of Spain’s hegemony partly reflected in Velázquez's Las Meninas. In El héroe Gracián struggled against this slow decline as did Conde-Duque de Olivares, the PM (valido), in politics intent on the restoration of Spain's power in Europe. This led to wars against the Dutch (1621), the Swedes (1634) and the French (1635), which bankrupted Spain and caused the rebellion of Catalonia and the loss of Portugal to independence (1640).
Gracián's hero is an heir to the Renaissance writings on courtiers but is culturally within the Counter-Reformation and portrays a hero outside the dominant 17th. century image of the universal man. This turns Gracian's hero into an imaginary figure, the anti-hero. His hero's exceptional qualities and behaviours are those of an individual who is no longer heroic.
Summary
El héroe (1637) by Gracián (1601-1658), a Spanish Jesuit, analyses the characteristics of a true hero, emphasising wisdom, courage and morality.
Preface:
Gracián sets out his aim in exploring heroism by focussing on the subject's character and morality. For him real heroism is not about strength or bravery, but about wisdom and self-control. He encourages his audience to reach for higher standards of behaviour through self-improvement and ethical principles.
His preface invites readers to self-reflection and the values of the hero in a superficial world.
Chapter 1
Gracián suggests that the true hero should conceal the full extent of their abilities and capacities. Gracián proposes that wisdom and discretion are vital traits for anyone aspiring to greatness. By not revealing all of their strengths, heroes can maintain an element of surprise and protect themselves from envy and competition.
Gracián maintains that those who are overly confident or who flaunt their abilities may attract unnecessary attention and rivalry. Instead, a hero should cultivate an aura of mystery, allowing others to underestimate them. This strategic concealment not only helps in social relationships but also enhances the hero's effectiveness in achieving their objectives.
The chapter emphasises the importance of self-awareness and the ability to gauge when to display one's talents and when to hold back. In doing so, a hero can address challenges more adeptly and maintain an advantage over adversaries.
Chapter 2
Gracián emphasises the importance of self-control and the art of discretion for a true hero. He argues that a hero must master their emotions and passions, presenting a composed exterior to the world. This concealment is not about suppressing feelings but rather about managing them wisely to maintain dignity and authority.
Gracián suggests that revealing one's passions can lead to vulnerability and can be exploited by others. A hero should cultivate an air of mystery, allowing others to perceive them as strong and unshakeable. By doing so, they can affront social interactions more effectively and maintain a position of respect and influence.
The chapter highlights the balance between authenticity and the strategic presentation of oneself, advocating for a calculated approach to emotions in order to achieve personal and social goals.
Chapter 3
In Chapter 3 Gracián emphasises the importance of a hero's mental attributes and character. He argues that a true hero must possess a well-formed mind, characterised by wisdom, discernment, and the ability to think critically.
Gracián discusses the necessity of having a balanced intellect, which combines both reason and intuition. He highlights the value of knowledge and the ability to learn from experiences, suggesting that a hero should be reflective and capable of understanding complex situations. The chapter also touches on the importance of emotional intelligence, as a hero must inspire others.
Furthermore, Gracián warns against the pitfalls of arrogance and superficiality, advocating for humility and depth of character. He suggests that a hero should cultivate virtues such as patience, courage, and integrity, which contribute to a strong and admirable character.
Chapter 4
Gracián focusses on the emotional and moral qualities that define a true hero. He emphasises that a hero's heart should be characterised by nobility, generosity, and a deep sense of justice.
Gracián argues that a hero must possess a compassionate heart, one that is sensitive to the needs and suffering of others. This empathy allows the hero to connect with people and inspire loyalty and admiration. He also highlights the importance of courage, not just in facing physical challenges but also in standing up for what is right, even in the face of adversity.
Additionally, Gracián discusses the significance of integrity and honour, suggesting that a hero should be guided by strong ethical principles. A true hero must be trustworthy and maintain their commitments, as this builds respect and credibility among peers.
The chapter also touches on the idea of selflessness, where a hero prioritises the well-being of others over personal gain. Gracián concludes that the heart of a hero should be a blend of strength and compassion, enabling them to lead with both authority and kindness.
Chapter 5
Gracián writes about the importance of discernment and refinement in a hero's character. He argues that true heroes possess not only strength and courage, but also a cultivated sense of taste that allows them to appreciate beauty, art, and the finer things in life.
Gracián suggests that this exquisite taste is essential for a hero to participate in social situations and to inspire admiration and respect from others. It involves an understanding of aesthetics, ethics, and the ability to make judicious choices that reflect a deep appreciation for quality and virtue. The chapter highlights that heroes should be able to distinguish between what is truly valuable and what is superficial, thereby enhancing their reputation and influence.
In general Gracián advocates for a balance between intellectual and aesthetic sensibilities, asserting that a hero's greatness is not solely defined by their actions but also by their ability to appreciate and embody beauty in various forms.
Chapter 6
Gracián discusses the importance of striving for greatness and nobility in your actions and character. He emphasises that a true hero should not only aim for personal excellence but also seek to achieve significant and admirable goals that elevate their status and inspire others.
Gracián argues that a hero's greatness is defined by their commitment to noble ideals, such as honour, integrity, and virtue. This chapter highlights the necessity for heroes to engage in pursuits that contribute positively to society and reflect their high moral standards. By excelling in great and noble endeavours, a hero can leave a lasting impact and serve as a role model for others.
Gracián also points out that true nobility is not merely a matter of birth or social status, but is earned through one's actions and character. He encourages individuals to cultivate their abilities and strive for excellence in all aspects of life, thereby embodying the qualities that define a true hero. The chapter reinforces the idea that greatness is achieved through dedication to noble causes and the pursuit of higher ideals.
Chapter 7
Gracián underlines that a true hero cultivates a strong and disciplined mind, which serves as the foundation for all other virtues and accomplishments.
He argues that a well-ordered mind allows an individual to confront challenges with wisdom and clarity, making sound decisions that reflect integrity and purpose. The chapter suggests that inner strength and intellectual rigour are essential for achieving greatness, as they enable a person to rise above the distractions and temptations of the world.
Gracián encourages readers to engage in self-reflection, continuous learning, and the cultivation of virtues such as patience, humility, and resilience. By prioritizing mental and moral excellence, one can become a true hero, capable of inspiring others and making a meaningful impact in society.
Chapter 8
In this chapter the emphasis is on the importance of self-control and the ability to manage one's emotions and desires. Gracián argues that a true hero must possess a strong sense of discipline, as this inner strength is crucial for maintaining focus and achieving long-term goals.
He emphasises that self-control allows individuals to resist temptations and distractions that can lead them astray. By mastering their impulses, heroes can act with purpose and integrity, making decisions that align with their values and aspirations. Gracián also discusses the significance of patience, suggesting that a hero should be willing to endure hardships and setbacks without losing sight of objectives.
True greatness comes from within, and cultivating self-discipline and emotional resilience is essential for anyone aspiring to be a hero. By prioritising these qualities, individuals can confront life's challenges with grace and emerge as leaders who inspire others.
Chapter 9
Gracián asserts that every individual possesses a unique strength or characteristics that can be harnessed to achieve greatness. Recognising and cultivating this quality is essential for personal development and effective leadership.
Gracián encourages readers to reflect on their strengths and to identify the virtue that stands out most prominently in their character. This self-knowledge allows individuals to leverage their inherent abilities in pursuit of their goals and to navigate challenges more effectively. By honing their predominant quality, heroes can enhance their influence and inspire others.
Additionally, Gracián writes that while it is important to recognise one's strengths, it is equally vital to remain humble and aware of your limitations. A true hero balances confidence in their abilities with a commitment to continuous growth and improvement.
He underscores the significance of self-awareness in the journey toward becoming a hero, highlighting that understanding and developing your unique virtues is key to achieving lasting success and making a positive impact on the world.
Chapter 10
Gracián's focus here is on understanding the nature of one's fortune and the importance of recognising the circumstances that shape one's life. The author considers that a true hero must be aware of the "cast and character" of their fortune, meaning they should understand the influences and conditions that affect their success and failures.
He suggests that fortune is not merely a matter of luck but is influenced by your actions, decisions, and the environment. A wise individual will assess their situation, adapt to it, and make the most of the opportunities presented to them. Gracián encourages readers to cultivate self-awareness and to be strategic in dealing with their fortunes, highlighting that a hero is not just defined by their abilities but also by their understanding of the forces at play in their lives.
The chapter is a reminder that knowledge of your circumstances is crucial for achieving greatness and that a thoughtful approach to fortune can lead to better outcomes.
Chapter 11
The theme revolves around the importance of recognising when to retreat or withdraw in the face of adversity or unfavourable circumstances. Gracián asserts that a wise hero understands that fortune can be fickle and that there are times when it is prudent to step back rather than persist in a losing battle.
He emphasises the value of discernment and self-awareness, advising that one should not cling to a situation that is clearly turning against them. Instead, a true hero should have the humility and wisdom to recognise when to change course, conserve their resources, and wait for a more favourable opportunity. This strategic retreat is not a sign of weakness but rather a demonstration of intelligence and foresight.
Gracián also maintains that knowing when to retreat can ultimately lead to greater success in the long run, as it allows individuals to regroup and reassess their strategies. The chapter serves as a reminder that flexibility and adaptability are key traits of a true hero, enabling them to confront the ups and downs of fortune with grace and wisdom.
Chapter 12
The focus of this chapter is the importance of winning the love and admiration of others as a key aspect of true heroism. Gracián argues that a hero should strive to be well-regarded and respected by those around them, as this not only enhances their influence but also contributes to their overall success.
He emphasises that gaining the love of others requires a combination of virtues, including kindness, generosity, and the ability to connect with people on a personal level. A hero should be approachable and demonstrate genuine concern for the well-being of others, as this fosters goodwill and loyalty.
Gracián also points out that while it is impossible to please everyone, a hero should aim to cultivate positive relationships and maintain a good reputation. He suggests that the love of the world can be achieved through consistent, honourable actions and by being a source of inspiration and support to others.
A hero's legacy is not only defined by their accomplishments but also by the love and respect they garner from their peers and society at large. By focussing on building meaningful connections and embodying admirable qualities, a hero can create a lasting impact and be remembered fondly by future generations.
Chapter 13
Gracián's concept of "je ne sais quoi" refers to an elusive quality that makes a person stand out and be admired. Gracián emphasises that a true hero possesses an indefinable charm or magnetism that attracts others, often without a clear reason. This quality is not merely about physical appearance or superficial traits; it encompasses a deeper charisma, confidence, and an ability to inspire and engage those around them.
The author suggests that this unique quality can be cultivated through self-awareness, refinement of character, and the development of virtues. A hero should strive to embody this "je ne sais quoi" to leave a lasting impression and be effective in their endeavours.
Chapter 14
The focus in this chapter is on the idea of having a "natural ascendent," which refers to an inherent ability to command respect and admiration from others. Gracián argues that a true hero possesses an innate authority and presence that draws people to them, making them natural leaders.
This ascendant quality is not solely based on rank or status; rather, it stems from a combination of personal virtues, confidence, and the ability to inspire trust and loyalty. The philosopher maintains that a hero should cultivate this natural authority through self-discipline, wisdom, and moral integrity. By embodying these traits, a hero can influence others positively and lead effectively.
The chapter underscores the importance of authenticity and the ability to connect with others on a deeper level, suggesting that a true hero's influence comes from their character and the respect they earn rather than from mere titles or power.
Chapter 15
Gracián's theme here is the importance of continually renewing and maintaining your reputation. Gracián argues that a hero must be proactive in shaping how they are perceived by others, as reputation plays a crucial role in influence and effectiveness.
The author suggests that a hero should not become complacent or rely solely on past achievements. Instead, they should consistently demonstrate their virtues, skills, and integrity to reinforce their standing in the eyes of others. This can be achieved through actions that reflect their values, engaging in worthy endeavours, and being mindful of their public image.
Reputation is dynamic and can be easily affected by both positive and negative actions. Therefore, a hero must be vigilant and intentional in their conduct, ensuring that they are always working to enhance their reputation. By doing so, they can maintain the respect and admiration of their peers, which is essential for effective leadership and influence.
A hero's reputation is not just a reflection of their past but an ongoing project that requires attention and effort to sustain and improve.
Chapter 16
The focus of this chapter is on the importance of embodying good qualities genuinely, without pretence or affectation. Gracián emphasises that a true hero should possess virtues such as wisdom, courage, and integrity, but these traits must be expressed authentically, rather than as a facade to impress others.
He warns against the dangers of superficiality and the pursuit of appearances, suggesting that genuine character is more valuable than mere reputation. The chapter advocates for self-awareness and the cultivation of inner virtues, encouraging individuals to strive for excellence in their actions and thoughts. Ultimately, Gracián asserts that true greatness comes from being sincere and consistent in one's qualities, leading to respect and admiration from others.
Chapter 17
Gracián focusses on the importance of the drive to strive for excellence by comparing oneself to others. Gracián states that a true hero should possess a spirit of emulation, which motivates them to improve and achieve greatness.
He discusses how emulation can lead to personal growth and the pursuit of virtue, as it encourages individuals to learn from the successes of others, while also fostering a sense of competition that can drive one to excel. However, Gracián also warns against the pitfalls of envy, suggesting that while emulation is a positive force, it should be rooted in admiration rather than jealousy.
The chapter highlights the balance between aspiring to be better through the influence of others and maintaining one's integrity and individuality. A hero, therefore, is someone who uses emulation as a tool for self-improvement and inspiration, rather than allowing it to lead to negative feelings or actions.
Chapter 18
The theme of this chapter revolves around the concept of noble sympathy and the importance of fostering this quality both within oneself and in others. Gracián argues that a true hero should possess a deep sense of empathy and compassion, which allows them to connect with the feelings and experiences of others.
He considers that noble sympathy is not merely about feeling pity but involves a genuine understanding and appreciation of others' struggles and triumphs. This quality enables a hero to inspire and uplift those around them, creating a supportive environment that encourages mutual growth and development.
Gracián also underlines the role of a hero in promoting this virtue among others. By demonstrating noble sympathy, a hero can influence their peers and community, encouraging them to adopt similar attitudes of kindness and support. This collective spirit of empathy can lead to stronger bonds and a more harmonious society by fostering a more compassionate and understanding world.
Chapter 19
Gracián discusses whether a hero should possess any voluntary faults. He explores the idea that while heroes are often seen as paragons of virtue, they may also exhibit certain flaws or imperfections that can make them more human.
Gracián argues that some voluntary faults can serve a purpose, such as fostering humility or allowing for personal growth. These imperfections can also create opportunities for heroes to demonstrate resilience and the ability to overcome challenges. However, he cautions that these faults should not undermine a hero's overall character or lead to significant moral failings.
The chapter emphasises the importance of balance; a hero should strive for excellence while acknowledging their own limitations. By recognising and managing their voluntary faults, heroes can maintain their integrity and authenticity, ultimately enhancing their ability to inspire and lead others.
The author also reflects on the complexity of heroism, suggesting that while heroes may have voluntary faults, these should be carefully considered and managed to ensure they do not detract from their noble qualities.
Chapter 20
This chapter takes ip the theme of the ultimate perfection of a hero: religiousness or spiritual integrity. Gracián argues that a true hero should possess a deep sense of faith and moral conviction, which serve as the foundation for their character and actions.
He considers that religiousness provides a guiding principle for a hero, instilling values such as humility, compassion, and a sense of duty toward others. This spiritual dimension not only enhances the hero's personal integrity but also inspires those around them, as it reflects a commitment to higher ideals and ethical standards.
Gracián also discusses the importance of aligning your actions with your beliefs, suggesting that a hero's faith should be manifest in their behaviour and decisions. This alignment fosters trust and respect from others, further solidifying the hero's role as a leader and moral exemplar.
Themes
Conceptism
Baltasar Gracián's general style is known as conceptismo which is characterised by maximum meaning concentrated in minimum form. The author takes this format to the limit in Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom), published in 1647, a composition of 300 maxims with commentaries. In them he uses rhetoric and wordplay to form riddles.
Gracián's laconic style is based on that of his countrymen, writing in Latin: Tacitus, Seneca and Marcial and following the lead of gongorian baroque conceptists. With these the reader is obliged to decipher the hidden meanings of the text which is syntactically concise, devoid of subordinate clauses and lexical elisions. His prose is composed of short sentences punctuated by commas, semicolons and full stops which renders the meaning elusive. His style is summarised in his maxim:
"The good, if brief, is twice as good. And even the bad, if little, not so bad."
Semantically, his writings are ambivalent in order to cover all the possibilities of knowledge and perceptions. This gives a density to his writing through the double interpretation of literality and allegory. For example the double meaning of rio: laugh and running water.
Gracián's prose is the product of constantly corrected and polished style. Both the form and the content are elaborated, showing his awareness as a writer. As he says in the prologue of El Discreto:
"I mean, therefore, that it is not written for all, and that is why the arcanity of the style increases reverence to the sublimity of matter, making things more venerated the mysterious way of saying them."
Morality
Gracián's outlook is intellectual and affectivity is almost annulled in his writings. This explains the harsh tone and lack of human warmth in his works. He conceives of humans as the worst beings in creation and of life as struggle and deceit in line with baroque thinking. Everything has the double value of deceptive appearance and hidden reality which concurs with the political atmosphere of decline of the Spanish Empire. (The theme of appearance and hidden reality is also reflected in the búcaro in Velázquez's Meninas.)
As life is a struggle the author prepares the reader for the fight. He proposes defense as concealment and attack as discovery. Retreat in time is also better than a brillant victory.
All of Gracián's work is concerned with its practical application to human life and has moral philosophy as its object. His ideas on behaviour are synthesised in Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom). French 17th. and 18th. century moralists admired his work and Schpenhauer translated his Manual which Nietzsche described as:
"Europe has not produced anything finer or more complicated in terms of moral subtlety."
No comments:
Post a Comment